Difference between revisions of "Mental Maps"
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| + | [[File:Qual indu indi pres.png|thumb|right|[[Design Criteria of Methods|Method Categorisation:]] | ||
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| + | Quantitative - '''Qualitative'''<br> | ||
| + | Deductive - '''Inductive'''<br> | ||
| + | '''Individual''' - System - Global<br> | ||
| + | Past - '''Present''' - Future]] | ||
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'''In Short:''' Mental Maps are representations of our environment that are stored in our brain and help us navigate our everyday lives. They can reveal how individuals perceive and remember their environment. | '''In Short:''' Mental Maps are representations of our environment that are stored in our brain and help us navigate our everyday lives. They can reveal how individuals perceive and remember their environment. | ||
==Background== | ==Background== | ||
| − | Gould & White (1974) describe mental maps as “invisible landscapes that people carry in their heads”. Unlike in topographic maps, locations are relative and not fixed via latitude and longitude. Rather, mental Maps are shaped by spatial interactions and reflect both physical distance and social proximity. | + | Gould & White (1974) describe mental maps as '''“invisible landscapes that people carry in their heads”'''. Unlike in topographic maps, locations are relative and not fixed via latitude and longitude. Rather, mental Maps are shaped by spatial interactions and reflect both physical distance and social proximity. |
The term “cognitive map” was introduced by psychologist E. C. Tolman in 1948, who studied the behaviour of rats in a maze and discussed the phenomenon of spatial knowledge in both rats and humans (Tolman 1948). In the 1960s, geographers and urban planners adopted the concept, leading to further research in these fields. A prominent example is a study of american cities by Lynch (1960). Downs & Stea (2011) describe cognitive mapping as “a process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in his everyday spatial environment”. Gould & White (1974) use the term “mental maps” instead, which is more commonly used in geography. | The term “cognitive map” was introduced by psychologist E. C. Tolman in 1948, who studied the behaviour of rats in a maze and discussed the phenomenon of spatial knowledge in both rats and humans (Tolman 1948). In the 1960s, geographers and urban planners adopted the concept, leading to further research in these fields. A prominent example is a study of american cities by Lynch (1960). Downs & Stea (2011) describe cognitive mapping as “a process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in his everyday spatial environment”. Gould & White (1974) use the term “mental maps” instead, which is more commonly used in geography. | ||
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==What the method does== | ==What the method does== | ||
| − | Mental Maps helps us navigate our everyday life and are used to understand how individuals perceive spaces. They typically include landmarks and routes that connect places of interest (Gould & White 1974). Since they do not only include relative locations, but are also filled with attributive values and meaning (Kitchin 1994), they can for instance reveal which spaces are associated with positive or negative emotions. By comparing the mental maps of different participants, researchers can investigate how perception of space is influenced by factors such as age, social status or gender. In addition to that, mental maps can also be used to study and predict spatial behaviour (Aram et al. 2019). While they are typically used on a city or neighbourhood scale, the concept is also applicable to countries or even on a global scale (Gould & White 1974). For instance, in cultural and historical research, scientists are interested in how certain worldviews influence mental maps and subsequent decision-making e.g. in international politics (Schenk 2013; da Vinha 2017). | + | [[File:Mental Map Example.jpg|thumb|right|Mental Map of Lueneburg. Source: own]] |
| + | '''Mental Maps helps us navigate our everyday life and are used to understand how individuals perceive spaces.''' They typically include landmarks and routes that connect places of interest (Gould & White 1974). Since they do not only include relative locations, but are also filled with attributive values and meaning (Kitchin 1994), they can for instance reveal which spaces are associated with positive or negative emotions. By comparing the mental maps of different participants, researchers can investigate how perception of space is influenced by factors such as age, social status or gender. In addition to that, mental maps can also be used to study and predict spatial behaviour (Aram et al. 2019). While they are typically used on a city or neighbourhood scale, the concept is also applicable to countries or even on a global scale (Gould & White 1974). For instance, in cultural and historical research, scientists are interested in how certain worldviews influence mental maps and subsequent decision-making e.g. in international politics (Schenk 2013; da Vinha 2017). | ||
| − | Typically, participants are asked to draw their mental map of a specific area and the drawings are used for further analysis. Drawings can either be made on a completely blank page or on a base map. Base | + | '''Typically, participants are asked to draw their mental map of a specific area and the drawings are used for further analysis.''' Drawings can either be made on a completely blank page or on a base map. Base maps may include some landmarks or even consist of simplified topographic maps. While the use of base maps will increase comparability between maps, they offer less freedom for participants to express themselves (Szombara 2021). Attention should also be paid to the materials offered to the participants, as paper size and available pens / pencils and colours will influence the results. Mental mapping is often combined with interviews that can for example give additional insights into the participant’s thoughts throughout the drawing process (Gieseking 2013). |
For analysis, quantitative, qualitative or a mix between both methods / approaches may be used. For instance, computational methods can be used to analyse accuracy and complexity of mental maps compared to official maps. Individual elements may also be analysed according to their size or centrality, possibly revealing their importance to the participant (Aram et al. 2019). Gieseking (2013) has developed many examples for analytics including count of drawn items, use of colour and symbols, physical vs. built environment elements, accuracy of scale etc. | For analysis, quantitative, qualitative or a mix between both methods / approaches may be used. For instance, computational methods can be used to analyse accuracy and complexity of mental maps compared to official maps. Individual elements may also be analysed according to their size or centrality, possibly revealing their importance to the participant (Aram et al. 2019). Gieseking (2013) has developed many examples for analytics including count of drawn items, use of colour and symbols, physical vs. built environment elements, accuracy of scale etc. | ||
==Strengths & Challenges== | ==Strengths & Challenges== | ||
| − | Mental maps can provide valuable insights into an individual’s perception of the environment. It is assumed that asking participants to draw mental maps can give additional information compared to verbal descriptions alone. The drawing activity may assist participants in relaxing and remembering and is prominently used with children (Gieseking 2013). In the field of urban planning, mental maps may be used as a participatory tool that can help to involve citizen’s views in the planning process and to design cities in the best interest of the people (Gieseking 2013). Mental mapping is a versatile approach that is applicable in many disciplines and may foster interdisciplinary exchange. In education, drawing mental maps can also be a valuable lesson for students as a creative task that highlights how everyone perceives their environment differently and to reflect on the subjectivity of maps (Hoppe & Feulner 2022). | + | '''Mental maps can provide valuable insights into an individual’s perception of the environment.''' It is assumed that asking participants to draw mental maps can give additional information compared to verbal descriptions alone. The drawing activity may assist participants in relaxing and remembering and is prominently used with children (Gieseking 2013). In the field of urban planning, mental maps may be used as a participatory tool that can help to involve citizen’s views in the planning process and to design cities in the best interest of the people (Gieseking 2013). Mental mapping is a versatile approach that is applicable in many disciplines and may foster interdisciplinary exchange. In education, drawing mental maps can also be a valuable lesson for students as a creative task that highlights how everyone perceives their environment differently and to reflect on the subjectivity of maps (Hoppe & Feulner 2022). |
| − | However, the vast applicability also poses some challenges. Generally, mental maps can not be considered an established and well-defined scientific method. The various terms that exist in different disciplines and the lack of a united theoretical base may lead to confusion and misunderstanding and can hinder interdisciplinary collaboration. Since we cannot look into someone’s imagination, scientists have to rely on the recollection and communication of the participant regarding their mental maps so that e.g. drawing skills will have an impact on the outcome and accuracy of the depiction (Gieseking 2013). There has also been some criticism regarding the reliability of data gathered through mental maps, as they might change frequently in an individual, however Blades (1990) suggests that the data is generally reliable. | + | '''However, the vast applicability also poses some challenges.''' Generally, mental maps can not be considered an established and well-defined scientific method. The various terms that exist in different disciplines and the lack of a united theoretical base may lead to confusion and misunderstanding and can hinder interdisciplinary collaboration. Since we cannot look into someone’s imagination, scientists have to rely on the recollection and communication of the participant regarding their mental maps so that e.g. drawing skills will have an impact on the outcome and accuracy of the depiction (Gieseking 2013). There has also been some criticism regarding the reliability of data gathered through mental maps, as they might change frequently in an individual, however Blades (1990) suggests that the data is generally reliable. |
==Normativity== | ==Normativity== | ||
====Connectedness to other methods==== | ====Connectedness to other methods==== | ||
| − | * Mental mapping is often complemented by interviews or other verbal methods such as | + | * Mental mapping is often complemented by [[interviews]] or other verbal methods such as [[Focus Groups]] or [[ethnography]] (Gieseking 2013). For instance, there is a method called “narrative mapping” that combines mental mapping with interviews (Million 2024). Following Lynch’s (1960) approach, participants may be asked what they associate with certain spaces or what their everyday movements look like. |
| − | * In the Walking Exercise, mental mapping is combined with exploratory walking to develop sustainability competencies. | + | * In the [[Walking Exercise]], mental mapping is combined with exploratory walking to develop sustainability competencies. |
| − | * In geography-related fields, GIS are increasingly used to create and analyse mental maps. | + | * In geography-related fields, [[Geographical Information Systems | GIS]] are increasingly used to create and analyse mental maps. |
* Mental mapping is often conducted within settings not related directly to science, with many variations and diverse goals. Societal actors therefore may have experience with it, even if they never experienced it in a scientific context. | * Mental mapping is often conducted within settings not related directly to science, with many variations and diverse goals. Societal actors therefore may have experience with it, even if they never experienced it in a scientific context. | ||
| − | Being a qualitative approach, mental mapping is based on subjective and contextual experience. Since everyone perceives their environment differently, every mental map is unique (Graham 1976). Mental mapping may also be used to highlight that maps in general cannot be considered objective and are potentially biased. Mental maps do not only reflect personal experiences, but can also be influenced by stories from other people or from the media, as well as by stereotypes (Gould & White 1974). When applying this method for data gathering, it should be taken into account that the choice of available material (e.g. available colour, paper size and orientation) as well as the individual’s drawing skills will influence the results (Graham 1976). | + | Being a qualitative approach, mental mapping is based on subjective and contextual experience. Since everyone perceives their environment differently, every mental map is unique (Graham 1976). Mental mapping may also be used to highlight that maps in general cannot be considered objective and are potentially biased. Mental maps do not only reflect personal experiences, but can also be influenced by stories from other people or from the media, as well as by stereotypes (Gould & White 1974). When applying this method for data gathering, it should be taken into account that the choice of available material (e.g. available colour, paper size and orientation) as well as the individual’s drawing skills will influence the results (Graham 1976). |
==Outlook== | ==Outlook== | ||
| Line 38: | Line 46: | ||
* Kitchin, Robert M. 1994. ''Cognitive Maps: What Are They And Why Study Them?'' Journal Of Environmental Psychology 14 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80194-x. | * Kitchin, Robert M. 1994. ''Cognitive Maps: What Are They And Why Study Them?'' Journal Of Environmental Psychology 14 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80194-x. | ||
* Lynch, Kevin A. 1960. ''The Image Of The City''. | * Lynch, Kevin A. 1960. ''The Image Of The City''. | ||
| − | * For narrative mapping see pp. 215-228: Heinrich, Anna J., Sèverine Marguim, Angela Million and Jörg Stollmann. 2024. ''Handbook Of Qualitative And Visual Methods in Spatial Research''. 2024. transcript eBooks | + | * For narrative mapping see pp. 215-228: Heinrich, Anna J., Sèverine Marguim, Angela Million and Jörg Stollmann. 2024. ''Handbook Of Qualitative And Visual Methods in Spatial Research''. 2024. transcript eBooks. |
==References== | ==References== | ||
| Line 51: | Line 59: | ||
* Kitchin, Robert M. 1994. ''Cognitive Maps: What Are They And Why Study Them?'' Journal Of Environmental Psychology 14 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80194-x. | * Kitchin, Robert M. 1994. ''Cognitive Maps: What Are They And Why Study Them?'' Journal Of Environmental Psychology 14 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80194-x. | ||
* Lynch, Kevin A. 1960. ''The Image Of The City''. | * Lynch, Kevin A. 1960. ''The Image Of The City''. | ||
| − | * Million, Angela. 2024. ''Mental Mapping and Narrative Mapping''. In: Heinrich, Anna J., Sèverine Marguim, Angela Million and Jörg Stollmann. ''Handbook Of Qualitative And Visual Methods in Spatial Research''. pp. 215-228. transcript eBooks | + | * Million, Angela. 2024. ''Mental Mapping and Narrative Mapping''. In: Heinrich, Anna J., Sèverine Marguim, Angela Million and Jörg Stollmann. ''Handbook Of Qualitative And Visual Methods in Spatial Research''. pp. 215-228. transcript eBooks. |
* Schenk, Frithjof B. 2013. ''Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History''. European History Online. https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/theories-and-methods/mental-maps/frithjof-benjamin-schenk-mental-maps-the-cognitive-mapping-of-the-continent-as-an-object-of-research-of-european-history#section_2 [16.10.2024]. | * Schenk, Frithjof B. 2013. ''Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History''. European History Online. https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/theories-and-methods/mental-maps/frithjof-benjamin-schenk-mental-maps-the-cognitive-mapping-of-the-continent-as-an-object-of-research-of-european-history#section_2 [16.10.2024]. | ||
* Szombara, Stanisław. 2021. ''Using Different Mapping Techniques and GIS Programs in the Analysis and Visualisation of Mental Maps.'' Polish Cartographical Review 53 (1): 91–104. https://doi.org/10.2478/pcr-2021-0008. | * Szombara, Stanisław. 2021. ''Using Different Mapping Techniques and GIS Programs in the Analysis and Visualisation of Mental Maps.'' Polish Cartographical Review 53 (1): 91–104. https://doi.org/10.2478/pcr-2021-0008. | ||
* Tolman, E. C. (1948). ''Cognitive maps in rats and men''. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189–208. | * Tolman, E. C. (1948). ''Cognitive maps in rats and men''. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189–208. | ||
| + | [[Category:Qualitative]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Inductive]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Individual]] | ||
| + | [[Category:Present]] | ||
[[Category:Methods]] | [[Category:Methods]] | ||
| + | ---- | ||
The [[Table of Contributors|author]] of this entry is Hannah Metke. | The [[Table of Contributors|author]] of this entry is Hannah Metke. | ||
| + | |||
| + | __NOTOC__ | ||
Latest revision as of 14:41, 13 November 2024
Quantitative - Qualitative
Deductive - Inductive
Individual - System - Global
Past - Present - Future
In Short: Mental Maps are representations of our environment that are stored in our brain and help us navigate our everyday lives. They can reveal how individuals perceive and remember their environment.
Background
Gould & White (1974) describe mental maps as “invisible landscapes that people carry in their heads”. Unlike in topographic maps, locations are relative and not fixed via latitude and longitude. Rather, mental Maps are shaped by spatial interactions and reflect both physical distance and social proximity.
The term “cognitive map” was introduced by psychologist E. C. Tolman in 1948, who studied the behaviour of rats in a maze and discussed the phenomenon of spatial knowledge in both rats and humans (Tolman 1948). In the 1960s, geographers and urban planners adopted the concept, leading to further research in these fields. A prominent example is a study of american cities by Lynch (1960). Downs & Stea (2011) describe cognitive mapping as “a process composed of a series of psychological transformations by which an individual acquires, codes, stores, recalls, and decodes information about the relative locations and attributes of phenomena in his everyday spatial environment”. Gould & White (1974) use the term “mental maps” instead, which is more commonly used in geography.
While the terms “cognitive mapping” and “mental mapping” are often used interchangeably, mental maps sometimes refer explicitly to actual maps e.g. drawn on paper, while cognitive mapping is more concerned with the psychological processes (Gieseking 2013). Some authors have come up with additional terms, such as “sketch maps” (Szombora 2021). This inconsistent terminology is largely a result of the development within different disciplines; today the method is for example used in fields related to geography, planning and architecture as well as in sociology, anthropology and political and historical sciences.
What the method does
Mental Maps helps us navigate our everyday life and are used to understand how individuals perceive spaces. They typically include landmarks and routes that connect places of interest (Gould & White 1974). Since they do not only include relative locations, but are also filled with attributive values and meaning (Kitchin 1994), they can for instance reveal which spaces are associated with positive or negative emotions. By comparing the mental maps of different participants, researchers can investigate how perception of space is influenced by factors such as age, social status or gender. In addition to that, mental maps can also be used to study and predict spatial behaviour (Aram et al. 2019). While they are typically used on a city or neighbourhood scale, the concept is also applicable to countries or even on a global scale (Gould & White 1974). For instance, in cultural and historical research, scientists are interested in how certain worldviews influence mental maps and subsequent decision-making e.g. in international politics (Schenk 2013; da Vinha 2017).
Typically, participants are asked to draw their mental map of a specific area and the drawings are used for further analysis. Drawings can either be made on a completely blank page or on a base map. Base maps may include some landmarks or even consist of simplified topographic maps. While the use of base maps will increase comparability between maps, they offer less freedom for participants to express themselves (Szombara 2021). Attention should also be paid to the materials offered to the participants, as paper size and available pens / pencils and colours will influence the results. Mental mapping is often combined with interviews that can for example give additional insights into the participant’s thoughts throughout the drawing process (Gieseking 2013).
For analysis, quantitative, qualitative or a mix between both methods / approaches may be used. For instance, computational methods can be used to analyse accuracy and complexity of mental maps compared to official maps. Individual elements may also be analysed according to their size or centrality, possibly revealing their importance to the participant (Aram et al. 2019). Gieseking (2013) has developed many examples for analytics including count of drawn items, use of colour and symbols, physical vs. built environment elements, accuracy of scale etc.
Strengths & Challenges
Mental maps can provide valuable insights into an individual’s perception of the environment. It is assumed that asking participants to draw mental maps can give additional information compared to verbal descriptions alone. The drawing activity may assist participants in relaxing and remembering and is prominently used with children (Gieseking 2013). In the field of urban planning, mental maps may be used as a participatory tool that can help to involve citizen’s views in the planning process and to design cities in the best interest of the people (Gieseking 2013). Mental mapping is a versatile approach that is applicable in many disciplines and may foster interdisciplinary exchange. In education, drawing mental maps can also be a valuable lesson for students as a creative task that highlights how everyone perceives their environment differently and to reflect on the subjectivity of maps (Hoppe & Feulner 2022).
However, the vast applicability also poses some challenges. Generally, mental maps can not be considered an established and well-defined scientific method. The various terms that exist in different disciplines and the lack of a united theoretical base may lead to confusion and misunderstanding and can hinder interdisciplinary collaboration. Since we cannot look into someone’s imagination, scientists have to rely on the recollection and communication of the participant regarding their mental maps so that e.g. drawing skills will have an impact on the outcome and accuracy of the depiction (Gieseking 2013). There has also been some criticism regarding the reliability of data gathered through mental maps, as they might change frequently in an individual, however Blades (1990) suggests that the data is generally reliable.
Normativity
Connectedness to other methods
- Mental mapping is often complemented by interviews or other verbal methods such as Focus Groups or ethnography (Gieseking 2013). For instance, there is a method called “narrative mapping” that combines mental mapping with interviews (Million 2024). Following Lynch’s (1960) approach, participants may be asked what they associate with certain spaces or what their everyday movements look like.
- In the Walking Exercise, mental mapping is combined with exploratory walking to develop sustainability competencies.
- In geography-related fields, GIS are increasingly used to create and analyse mental maps.
- Mental mapping is often conducted within settings not related directly to science, with many variations and diverse goals. Societal actors therefore may have experience with it, even if they never experienced it in a scientific context.
Being a qualitative approach, mental mapping is based on subjective and contextual experience. Since everyone perceives their environment differently, every mental map is unique (Graham 1976). Mental mapping may also be used to highlight that maps in general cannot be considered objective and are potentially biased. Mental maps do not only reflect personal experiences, but can also be influenced by stories from other people or from the media, as well as by stereotypes (Gould & White 1974). When applying this method for data gathering, it should be taken into account that the choice of available material (e.g. available colour, paper size and orientation) as well as the individual’s drawing skills will influence the results (Graham 1976).
Outlook
Mental Maps have potential to be used in various disciplines, however a common terminology should be established to foster interdisciplinary exchange. With participatory methods on the rise in e.g. urban planning, mental mapping is likely to gain in importance. Additionally, advances in digital technologies may facilitate mental maps research. CAD (computer-aided design programes) can assist participants in drawing maps and GIS may be used to digitise, georeference and analyse mental maps. There are even software applications (e.g. Aram Mental Map Analyzer) being designed specifically for analyzing mental maps (Aram et al. 2019).
Key Publications
- Downs, Roger M. and David Stea. 1977. Maps in Minds: Reflections On Cognitive Mapping.
- Gould, Peter and Rodney White. 1974. MENTAL MAPS.
- Kitchin, Robert M. 1994. Cognitive Maps: What Are They And Why Study Them? Journal Of Environmental Psychology 14 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80194-x.
- Lynch, Kevin A. 1960. The Image Of The City.
- For narrative mapping see pp. 215-228: Heinrich, Anna J., Sèverine Marguim, Angela Million and Jörg Stollmann. 2024. Handbook Of Qualitative And Visual Methods in Spatial Research. 2024. transcript eBooks.
References
- Aram, Farshid, Ebrahim Solgi, Ester Higueras García, Danial Mohammadzadeh S, Amir Mosavi and Shahaboddin Shamshirband. 2019. Design And Validation Of A Computational Program For Analysing Mental Maps: Aram Mental Map Analyzer. Sustainability 11 (14): 3790. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143790.
- Blades, Mark. 1990. The Reliability of Data Collected From Sketch Maps. Journal of Environmental Psychology 10 (4): 327–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80032-5.
- Da Vinha, Luis. 2017. Geographic Mental Maps and Foreign Policy Change. De Gruyter eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110524475.
- Downs, Roger M. and David Stea. 2011. Cognitive Maps and Spatial Behaviour: Process and Products. In: Dodge, Martin, Rob Kitchin, and Chris Perkins. 2011. The Map Reader. Wiley eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470979587.
- Gieseking, Jack Jen. 2013. Where We Go From Here: The Mental Sketch Mapping Method and Its Analytic Components. Qualitative Inquiry 19 (9): 712 -24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800413500926.
- Gould, Peter and Rodney White. 1974. MENTAL MAPS.
- Graham, Elspeth. 1976. What Is a Mental Map? Area 8, no. 4: 259–62. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20001137.
- Hoppe, Max and Barbara Feulner. 2022. Mental Maps im Geographieunterricht. Augsburger Geographiedidaktische Impulse. https://opus.bibliothek.uni-augsburg.de/opus4/frontdoor/deliver/index/docId/99118/file/Hoppe_Feulner_2022_MentalMaps_im_GU.pdf
- Kitchin, Robert M. 1994. Cognitive Maps: What Are They And Why Study Them? Journal Of Environmental Psychology 14 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0272-4944(05)80194-x.
- Lynch, Kevin A. 1960. The Image Of The City.
- Million, Angela. 2024. Mental Mapping and Narrative Mapping. In: Heinrich, Anna J., Sèverine Marguim, Angela Million and Jörg Stollmann. Handbook Of Qualitative And Visual Methods in Spatial Research. pp. 215-228. transcript eBooks.
- Schenk, Frithjof B. 2013. Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History. European History Online. https://www.ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/theories-and-methods/mental-maps/frithjof-benjamin-schenk-mental-maps-the-cognitive-mapping-of-the-continent-as-an-object-of-research-of-european-history#section_2 [16.10.2024].
- Szombara, Stanisław. 2021. Using Different Mapping Techniques and GIS Programs in the Analysis and Visualisation of Mental Maps. Polish Cartographical Review 53 (1): 91–104. https://doi.org/10.2478/pcr-2021-0008.
- Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189–208.
The author of this entry is Hannah Metke.
