https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&feed=atom&action=historyCase studies and Natural experiments - Revision history2024-03-29T12:28:49ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.33.0https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=7513&oldid=prevHvW: /* Natural experiments */2023-12-06T08:32:30Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Natural experiments</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about [[Glossary|complexity]], [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even [[Glossary|complex systems]] and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about [[Glossary|complexity]], [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">? Or is it all different and is this an early testimony of the horrible ramifications of colonialism</ins>? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even [[Glossary|complex systems]] and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many [[Glossary|patterns]] where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many [[Glossary|patterns]] where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td></tr>
</table>HvWhttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=5947&oldid=prevImi: /* Experiments in sustainability science */2021-06-30T19:28:11Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Experiments in sustainability science</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 19:28, 30 June 2021</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:World 3 model.jpg|600px|thumb|right|'''The world 3 model was part of the "Limits to Growth" report of the Club of Rome.''' The picture creates a sense of the multitude and complexity of variables that influence a single case study in the real world.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:World 3 model.jpg|600px|thumb|right|'''The world 3 model was part of the "Limits to Growth" report of the Club of Rome.''' The picture creates a sense of the multitude and complexity of variables that influence a single case study in the real world.]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Experiments in sustainability science are characterised by an intervention and the production of empirical evidence. These two key criteria are essential for experiments in sustainability science, which can be in addition also differentiated into a problem focused and a solution orientated focus. Nevertheless, problem orientated studies with full control over all variables (except for the one(s) being investigated) are still clearly timely in sustainability science, as many experiments conducted in ecology prove. Less control over variables is equally important, and again ecology, agricultural science but also experiments in psychology come to mind. Problem orientated focus with no control over variables is at the heart of a joined problem framing of transdisciplinary research in sustainability science, and such an approach also characterised the first Club of Rome report. Solution orientated focus with total or some control over variables is insofar a remarkable step since it marks a shift from the still dominating [[Glossary|paradigm]] of research where facts are only approximated. Since solutions may be compromises but can be achieved, a solution orientated research indicates a shift from more classical lines of thinking. The solution orientated approach with no control over variables marks the frontier of research, since it is clearly long term thinking. Prominent efforts are the IPBES, the sustainable development goal measures, and the current efforts of the rising number of transdisciplinary projects. While these are starting points, I consider these efforts to be a clear sign of hope, not only for out planet, but likewise for the development of science out of its dogmatic slumber.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Experiments in sustainability science are characterised by an intervention and the production of empirical evidence. These two key criteria are essential for experiments in sustainability science, which can be in addition also differentiated into a problem focused and a solution orientated focus. Nevertheless, problem orientated studies with full control over all variables (except for the one(s) being investigated) are still clearly timely in sustainability science, as many experiments conducted in ecology prove. Less control over variables is equally important, and again ecology, agricultural science but also experiments in psychology come to mind. Problem orientated focus with no control over variables is at the heart of a joined problem framing of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Glossary|</ins>transdisciplinary<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>research in sustainability science, and such an approach also characterised the first Club of Rome report. Solution orientated focus with total or some control over variables is insofar a remarkable step since it marks a shift from the still dominating [[Glossary|paradigm]] of research where facts are only approximated. Since solutions may be compromises but can be achieved, a solution orientated research indicates a shift from more classical lines of thinking. The solution orientated approach with no control over variables marks the frontier of research, since it is clearly long term thinking. Prominent efforts are the IPBES, the sustainable development goal measures, and the current efforts of the rising number of transdisciplinary projects. While these are starting points, I consider these efforts to be a clear sign of hope, not only for out planet, but likewise for the development of science out of its dogmatic slumber.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Meta-analysis: Integrating cases towards holistic understanding==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Meta-analysis: Integrating cases towards holistic understanding==</div></td></tr>
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</table>Imihttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=5892&oldid=prevImi: /* Natural experiments */2021-06-27T15:00:55Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Natural experiments</span></span></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 15:00, 27 June 2021</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l5" >Line 5:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about [[Glossary|complexity]], [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even [[Glossary|complex systems]] and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about [[Glossary|complexity]], [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even [[Glossary|complex systems]] and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many patterns where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Glossary|</ins>patterns<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Another prominent example of a single case or phenomena is the Covid pandemic that emerges further while I am writing these lines.''' While much was learned from previous pandemics, this pandemic is different, evolves different, and creates different ramifications. The impact of our societies and the opportunity to learn from this pandemic is however undeniable. While classical experiments evolve knowledge like pawns in a chess game, moving forward step by step, a crisis such as the Covid pandemic is more like the horse in a chess game, jumping over larger gaps, being less predictable, and certainly harder to master. The evolution of knowledge in an interconnected world often demands a rather singular approach as a starting point. This is especially important in normative sciences, where for instance in conservation biology many researchers approach solutions through singular case studies. Hence the solution orientated agenda of sustainability science emerged to take this into account, and further.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>'''Another prominent example of a single case or phenomena is the Covid pandemic that emerges further while I am writing these lines.''' While much was learned from previous pandemics, this pandemic is different, evolves different, and creates different ramifications. The impact of our societies and the opportunity to learn from this pandemic is however undeniable. While classical experiments evolve knowledge like pawns in a chess game, moving forward step by step, a crisis such as the Covid pandemic is more like the horse in a chess game, jumping over larger gaps, being less predictable, and certainly harder to master. The evolution of knowledge in an interconnected world often demands a rather singular approach as a starting point. This is especially important in normative sciences, where for instance in conservation biology many researchers approach solutions through singular case studies. Hence the solution orientated agenda of sustainability science emerged to take this into account, and further.</div></td></tr>
</table>Imihttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=5868&oldid=prevImi: /* Experiments in sustainability science */2021-06-21T09:43:23Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Experiments in sustainability science</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:World 3 model.jpg|600px|thumb|right|'''The world 3 model was part of the "Limits to Growth" report of the Club of Rome.''' The picture creates a sense of the multitude and complexity of variables that influence a single case study in the real world.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:World 3 model.jpg|600px|thumb|right|'''The world 3 model was part of the "Limits to Growth" report of the Club of Rome.''' The picture creates a sense of the multitude and complexity of variables that influence a single case study in the real world.]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Experiments in sustainability science are characterised by an intervention and the production of empirical evidence. These two key criteria are essential for experiments in sustainability science, which can be in addition also differentiated into a problem focused and a solution orientated focus. Nevertheless, problem orientated studies with full control over all variables (except for the one(s) being investigated) are still clearly timely in sustainability science, as many experiments conducted in ecology prove. Less control over variables is equally important, and again ecology, agricultural science but also experiments in psychology come to mind. Problem orientated focus with no control over variables is at the heart of a joined problem framing of transdisciplinary research in sustainability science, and such an approach also characterised the first Club of Rome report. Solution orientated focus with total or some control over variables is insofar a remarkable step since it marks a shift from the still dominating paradigm of research where facts are only approximated. Since solutions may be compromises but can be achieved, a solution orientated research indicates a shift from more classical lines of thinking. The solution orientated approach with no control over variables marks the frontier of research, since it is clearly long term thinking. Prominent efforts are the IPBES, the sustainable development goal measures, and the current efforts of the rising number of transdisciplinary projects. While these are starting points, I consider these efforts to be a clear sign of hope, not only for out planet, but likewise for the development of science out of its dogmatic slumber.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Experiments in sustainability science are characterised by an intervention and the production of empirical evidence. These two key criteria are essential for experiments in sustainability science, which can be in addition also differentiated into a problem focused and a solution orientated focus. Nevertheless, problem orientated studies with full control over all variables (except for the one(s) being investigated) are still clearly timely in sustainability science, as many experiments conducted in ecology prove. Less control over variables is equally important, and again ecology, agricultural science but also experiments in psychology come to mind. Problem orientated focus with no control over variables is at the heart of a joined problem framing of transdisciplinary research in sustainability science, and such an approach also characterised the first Club of Rome report. Solution orientated focus with total or some control over variables is insofar a remarkable step since it marks a shift from the still dominating <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Glossary|</ins>paradigm<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>of research where facts are only approximated. Since solutions may be compromises but can be achieved, a solution orientated research indicates a shift from more classical lines of thinking. The solution orientated approach with no control over variables marks the frontier of research, since it is clearly long term thinking. Prominent efforts are the IPBES, the sustainable development goal measures, and the current efforts of the rising number of transdisciplinary projects. While these are starting points, I consider these efforts to be a clear sign of hope, not only for out planet, but likewise for the development of science out of its dogmatic slumber.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div> </div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Meta-analysis: Integrating cases towards holistic understanding==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Meta-analysis: Integrating cases towards holistic understanding==</div></td></tr>
</table>Imihttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=5853&oldid=prevImi: /* 1. Documentation is key. */2021-06-21T09:00:01Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">1. Documentation is key.</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====1. Documentation is key.====</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====1. Documentation is key.====</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Single case studies demand a clear documentation, and by clear I do not mean an exhausting documentation. Where many disciplines relying on single case studies often fail is the right balance between the details and the general information, or in other words, getting the Occam’s razor into the documentation. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Single case studies demand a clear documentation, and by clear I do not mean an exhausting documentation. Where many disciplines relying on single case studies often fail is the right balance between the details and the general information, or in other words, getting the Occam’s razor into the documentation. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In [https://www.pnas.org/content/108/49/19449.short sustainability science] we did not learn to date which information is vital, and which one trivial. This is vastly different in medicine, where much of the canon of knowledge has been consolidated into a system that allows for a clear presentation of singular case studies. Take for instance the New England Journal of Medicine, one of the most prestigious scientific journals on this planet. Regularily, this journal publishes short case studies that provide either fundamentally new problems or even solutions that are recognised as important new knowledge in the respective field. Medicine is able to and actually demands such a presentation of knowledge, since much of the previous knowledge is compiled into a system that allows for a clear integration of new knowledge. In sustainability science such an established system is still widely lacking. People talk of complexity and the importance of recognising the individual case, yet I would argue that the world of medicine is equally complex. When people think that this is wrong, I think they are wrong. I consider the complexity of a singular individual and the world as such as being comparable, or at least equally complex. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>In [https://www.pnas.org/content/108/49/19449.short sustainability science] we did not learn to date which information is vital, and which one trivial. This is vastly different in medicine, where much of the canon of knowledge has been consolidated into a system that allows for a clear presentation of singular case studies. Take for instance the New England Journal of Medicine, one of the most prestigious scientific <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Glossary|</ins>journals<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>on this planet. Regularily, this journal publishes short case studies that provide either fundamentally new problems or even solutions that are recognised as important new knowledge in the respective field. Medicine is able to and actually demands such a presentation of knowledge, since much of the previous knowledge is compiled into a system that allows for a clear integration of new knowledge. In sustainability science such an established system is still widely lacking. People talk of complexity and the importance of recognising the individual case, yet I would argue that the world of medicine is equally complex. When people think that this is wrong, I think they are wrong. I consider the complexity of a singular individual and the world as such as being comparable, or at least equally complex. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Sustainability science shall thus realize that making cases comparable is the key to coherent knowledge, and ultimately a more systematic approach to new knowledge. Statistics will certainly not be the only contribution to this end, but it is quite certain that it will contribute to a holistic understanding.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Sustainability science shall thus realize that making cases comparable is the key to coherent knowledge, and ultimately a more systematic approach to new knowledge. Statistics will certainly not be the only contribution to this end, but it is quite certain that it will contribute to a holistic understanding.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
</table>Imihttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=5675&oldid=prevImi: /* Natural experiments and statistics - a rough guide */2021-06-07T11:33:26Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Natural experiments and statistics - a rough guide</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 11:33, 7 June 2021</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>3) '''How are the livelihoods within the case?'''</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>3) '''How are the livelihoods within the case?'''</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>While many would connect this to the last point, it may be worthwhile to consider this on its own. Livelihoods are what defines groups of people and their possibility to thrive. While this is equally bound to culture and justice, it repeatedly proves that it is much more than the mere sum of the two. Livelihoods are often characterised by a deeply qualitative manifestation, which is where statistics need be to aware of its limitations. While statistics can compile descriptive information on a community and tackle some of the interactions within a community, it has to fail considering other points. This limitation is important to realise.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>While many would connect this to the last point, it may be worthwhile to consider this on its own. Livelihoods are what defines groups of people and their possibility to thrive. While this is equally bound to <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Glossary|</ins>culture<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>and justice, it repeatedly proves that it is much more than the mere sum of the two. Livelihoods are often characterised by a deeply qualitative manifestation, which is where statistics need be to aware of its limitations. While statistics can compile descriptive information on a community and tackle some of the interactions within a community, it has to fail considering other points. This limitation is important to realise.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>4) '''what is the intervention of the natural experiment within the case?'''</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>4) '''what is the intervention of the natural experiment within the case?'''</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Here, a whole world of interventions could be described. Instead, let us just settle on what was the active part of the researcher: systematically compare the state before the intervention with the state after the intervention.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Here, a whole world of interventions could be described. Instead, let us just settle on what was the active part of the researcher: systematically compare the state before the intervention with the state after the intervention.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td></tr>
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</table>Imihttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=5310&oldid=prevImi: /* Natural experiments */2021-05-18T19:35:23Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Natural experiments</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 19:35, 18 May 2021</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about [[Glossary|complexity]], [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even complex systems and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about [[Glossary|complexity]], [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Glossary|</ins>complex systems<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]] </ins>and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many patterns where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many patterns where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td></tr>
</table>Imihttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=5307&oldid=prevImi: /* Natural experiments */2021-05-18T19:28:42Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Natural experiments</span></span></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<col class="diff-content" />
<tr class="diff-title" lang="en">
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 19:28, 18 May 2021</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l3" >Line 3:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 3:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about complexity, [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even complex systems and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Out of a diverse rooting in discussions about <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[Glossary|</ins>complexity<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins>, [https://learningforsustainability.net/systems-thinking/ system thinking] and the need to understand specific contexts more deeply, the classic experimental setting did at some point become more and more challenged. What emerged out of the development of [https://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php/Interactions#The_field_experiment field experiments] was an almost exact opposite trend considering the reduction of complexity. What do we learn from singular cases? How do we deal with cases that are of pronounced importance, yet cannot be replicated? And what can be inferred from the design of such case studies? A famous example from ethnographic studies is the [http://www.eisp.org/818/ Easter Island]. Why did the people there channel much of their resources into building gigantic statues, thereby bringing their society to the brink of collapse? While this is a surely intriguing question, there are no replicates of the Easter Islands. This is at a first glance a very specific and singular problem, yet it is often considered to be an important example on how unsustainable behaviour led to a collapse of a while civilisation. Such settings are referred to as [https://www.britannica.com/science/natural-experiment Natural Experiments]. From a certain perspective, our whole planet is a Natural Experiment, and it is also from a statistical perspective a problem that we do not have any replicates, besides other ramifications and unclarity that derives such single case studies, which are however often increasingly relevant on a smaller scale as well. With a rise in qualitative methods both in diversity and abundance, and an urge for understanding even complex systems and cases, there is clearly a demand for the integration of knowledge from Natural Experiments. '''From a statistical point of view, such cases are difficult and challenging due to a lack of being reproducible, yet the knowledge can still be relevant, plausible and valid.''' To this end, I proclaim the concept of the niche in order to illustrate and conceptualise how single cases can still contribute to the production and canon of knowledge.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many patterns where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many patterns where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l12" >Line 12:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 12:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Lueneburg 2030.jpg|800px|thumb|center|'''A wonderful example for a bunch of real world experiments is the project Lüneburg 2030+.''' This map provides an overview of the different experiments.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Lueneburg 2030.jpg|800px|thumb|center|'''A wonderful example for a bunch of real world experiments is the project Lüneburg 2030+.''' This map provides an overview of the different experiments.]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;"></del></div></td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Ramifications for statistics ==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>== Ramifications for statistics ==</div></td></tr>
</table>Imihttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=4745&oldid=prevChristopher Franz at 13:45, 29 March 20212021-03-29T13:45:38Z<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
<col class="diff-marker" />
<col class="diff-content" />
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 13:45, 29 March 2021</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l1" >Line 1:</td>
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<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">'''Note:''' This entry is a brief introduction to natural experiments. For more details on other types of experiments, please refer to the entries on [[Experiments]], [[Experiments and Hypothesis Testing]] as well as [[Field experiments]].</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">__TOC__</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Natural experiments==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:Easter Island.jpg|thumb|right|Although this seems to be a little contradictory here, the impossibility of replication is a problem in the case of the Easter Island.]]</div></td></tr>
</table>Christopher Franzhttps://sustainabilitymethods.org/index.php?title=Case_studies_and_Natural_experiments&diff=4696&oldid=prevChristopher Franz at 09:27, 26 March 20212021-03-26T09:27:44Z<p></p>
<table class="diff diff-contentalign-left" data-mw="interface">
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">← Older revision</td>
<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #222; text-align: center;">Revision as of 09:27, 26 March 2021</td>
</tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l5" >Line 5:</td>
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<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many patterns where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>For example the [https://academic.oup.com/rcfs/article/4/2/155/1555737#113865691 financial crisis from 2007], where many patterns where comparable to previous crisis, but other factors were different. Hence this crisis is comparable to many previous factors and patterns regarding some layers of information, but also novel and not transferable regarding other dynamics. We did however understand based on the single case of this financial crisis that certain constructs in our financial systems are corrupt if not broken. The contribution to develop the financial world further is hence undeniable, even so far that many people agree that the changes that were being made are certainly not enough. </div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[[File:Lueneburg 2030.jpg|800px|thumb|center|A wonderful </del>example <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">for </del>a <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">bunch </del>of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">real world </del>experiments is the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">project Lüneburg 2030+</del>. This <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">map provides an overview </del>of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the different experiments</del>.<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</del></div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'''Another prominent </ins>example <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">of </ins>a <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">single case or phenomena is the Covid pandemic that emerges further while I am writing these lines.''' While much was learned from previous pandemics, this pandemic is different, evolves different, and creates different ramifications. The impact </ins>of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">our societies and the opportunity to learn from this pandemic is however undeniable. While classical </ins>experiments <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">evolve knowledge like pawns in a chess game, moving forward step by step, a crisis such as the Covid pandemic </ins>is <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">more like </ins>the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">horse in a chess game, jumping over larger gaps, being less predictable, and certainly harder to master. The evolution of knowledge in an interconnected world often demands a rather singular approach as a starting point</ins>. This <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">is especially important in normative sciences, where for instance in conservation biology many researchers approach solutions through singular case studies. Hence the solution orientated agenda </ins>of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sustainability science emerged to take this into account, and further</ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'''Another prominent example of a single case or phenomena is the Covid pandemic that emerges further while I am writing these lines.''' While much was learned from previous pandemics, </del>this <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">pandemic is different</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">evolves different, and creates different ramifications</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">The impact </del>of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">our societies and </del>the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">opportunity to learn from this pandemic is however undeniable</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">While classical </del>experiments <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">evolve knowledge like pawns </del>in <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a chess game, moving forward step by step</del>, a <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">crisis such </del>as the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Covid pandemic is more like the horse in </del>a <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">chess game</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">jumping over larger gaps, being less predictable, and certainly harder to master. The evolution </del>of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">knowledge in an interconnected world </del>often <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">demands a rather </del>singular <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">approach as a starting point</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">This is especially important in normative sciences</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">where for instance in conservation biology many researchers approach solutions through singular case studies. Hence </del>the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">solution orientated agenda </del>of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">sustainability science emerged </del>to <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">take this into account</del>, <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">and further</del>.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">To </ins>this <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">end</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">1177/0963662505050791 real world experiments] are the latest development in the diversification </ins>of the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">arena of experiments</ins>. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">These types of </ins>experiments <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">are currently widely explored </ins>in <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the literature</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">yet I do not recognise </ins>a <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">coherent understanding of what real-world experiments are to date in the available literature. These experiments can however be seen </ins>as <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">a continuation of </ins>the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trend of natural experiments, where </ins>a <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">solution orientated agenda tries to generate one or several interventions</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">the effects </ins>of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">which are tested </ins>often <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">within </ins>singular <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">cases, but the evaluation criteria are clear before the study was conducted</ins>. <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Most studies to date have defined this with vigour; nevertheless</ins>, the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">development </ins>of <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">real-world experiments is only starting </ins>to <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">emerge. For more info</ins>, <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">please refer to the entry on [[Living Labs & Real World Laboratories]]</ins>.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">To this end, </del>[<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">https</del>:<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">//journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0963662505050791 real world experiments] are the latest development in the diversification of the arena of experiments</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">These types of experiments are currently widely explored in the literature, yet I do not recognise </del>a <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">coherent understanding </del>of <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">what </del>real<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">-</del>world experiments <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">are to date in </del>the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">available literature</del>. <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">These experiments can however be seen as a continuation </del>of the <del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">trend of natural </del>experiments<del class="diffchange diffchange-inline">, where a solution orientated agenda tries to generate one or several interventions, the effects of which are tested often within singular cases, but the evaluation criteria are clear before the study was conducted. Most studies to date have defined this with vigour; nevertheless, the development of real-world experiments is only starting to emerge</del>. </div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">[File</ins>:<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">Lueneburg 2030</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">jpg|800px|thumb|center|'''A wonderful example for </ins>a <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">bunch </ins>of real world experiments <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">is </ins>the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">project Lüneburg 2030+</ins>.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''' This map provides an overview </ins>of the <ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">different </ins>experiments.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">]]</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno" id="mw-diff-left-l50" >Line 50:</td>
<td colspan="2" class="diff-lineno">Line 50:</td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Experiments in sustainability science==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'>−</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:World 3 model.jpg|thumb|right|The world 3 model was part of the "Limits to Growth" report of the Club of Rome. The picture creates a sense of the multitude and complexity of variables that influence a single case study in the real world.]]</div></td><td class='diff-marker'>+</td><td style="color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[File:World 3 model.jpg<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">|600px</ins>|thumb|right|<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">'''</ins>The world 3 model was part of the "Limits to Growth" report of the Club of Rome.<ins class="diffchange diffchange-inline">''' </ins>The picture creates a sense of the multitude and complexity of variables that influence a single case study in the real world.]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Experiments in sustainability science are characterised by an intervention and the production of empirical evidence. These two key criteria are essential for experiments in sustainability science, which can be in addition also differentiated into a problem focused and a solution orientated focus. Nevertheless, problem orientated studies with full control over all variables (except for the one(s) being investigated) are still clearly timely in sustainability science, as many experiments conducted in ecology prove. Less control over variables is equally important, and again ecology, agricultural science but also experiments in psychology come to mind. Problem orientated focus with no control over variables is at the heart of a joined problem framing of transdisciplinary research in sustainability science, and such an approach also characterised the first Club of Rome report. Solution orientated focus with total or some control over variables is insofar a remarkable step since it marks a shift from the still dominating paradigm of research where facts are only approximated. Since solutions may be compromises but can be achieved, a solution orientated research indicates a shift from more classical lines of thinking. The solution orientated approach with no control over variables marks the frontier of research, since it is clearly long term thinking. Prominent efforts are the IPBES, the sustainable development goal measures, and the current efforts of the rising number of transdisciplinary projects. While these are starting points, I consider these efforts to be a clear sign of hope, not only for out planet, but likewise for the development of science out of its dogmatic slumber.</div></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>Experiments in sustainability science are characterised by an intervention and the production of empirical evidence. These two key criteria are essential for experiments in sustainability science, which can be in addition also differentiated into a problem focused and a solution orientated focus. Nevertheless, problem orientated studies with full control over all variables (except for the one(s) being investigated) are still clearly timely in sustainability science, as many experiments conducted in ecology prove. Less control over variables is equally important, and again ecology, agricultural science but also experiments in psychology come to mind. Problem orientated focus with no control over variables is at the heart of a joined problem framing of transdisciplinary research in sustainability science, and such an approach also characterised the first Club of Rome report. Solution orientated focus with total or some control over variables is insofar a remarkable step since it marks a shift from the still dominating paradigm of research where facts are only approximated. Since solutions may be compromises but can be achieved, a solution orientated research indicates a shift from more classical lines of thinking. The solution orientated approach with no control over variables marks the frontier of research, since it is clearly long term thinking. Prominent efforts are the IPBES, the sustainable development goal measures, and the current efforts of the rising number of transdisciplinary projects. While these are starting points, I consider these efforts to be a clear sign of hope, not only for out planet, but likewise for the development of science out of its dogmatic slumber.</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td><td class='diff-marker'> </td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #222; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"></td></tr>
</table>Christopher Franz